Aids Essays (2963 words) - HIVAIDS, Health, Medicine,

Aids Matchmaker.com: Sign up now for a free trial. Date Smarter! AIDS "Somewhere among the million children who go to New York's publicly financed schools is a seven-year-old child suffering from AIDS. A special health and education panel had decided, on the strength of the guidelines issued by the federal Centers for Disease Control, that the child would be no danger to his classmates. Yet, when the school year started on September 9th, several thousand parents in two school districts in the borough of Queens kept their children at home. Fear of plague can be as pernicious, and contagious, as the plague itself(Fear of dying 1)." This article was written in 1985. Since then much has been found out about AIDS. Not enough for a cure though. There probably will be no cure found in the near future because the technology needed is not available. AIDS cases were first identified in 1981,in the United States. Researchers have traced cases back to 1959. There are millions of diagnosed cases worldwide, but there is no cure(Drotman 163). There are about a million people in the United States who are currently infected with HIV(HIV/AIDS 1). It infects the population heavily in some areas of the country and very lightly in other areas. No race, sex, social class, or age is immune(AIDS Understanding 10). AIDS has killed more americans than the Vietnam War, which killed 58,000(AIDS Understanding 10). AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Acquired means that it is not hereditary or introduced by medication. Immune indicates that it is related to the body's system that fights off disease. Deficiency represents the lack of certain kinds of cells that are normally found in the body. Syndrome is a group of symptoms and signs of disordered function that signal the diagnoses(Hyde 1). You don't catch AIDS, you catch HIV. HIV is the virus that leads to AIDS. HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency virus. HIV severely damages a person's disease fighting immune system. There are two viruses that cause AIDS. They belong to a group called retroviruses. The first virus is HIV-1. It was isolated by researchers in France in 1983, and in the U.S. in 1984. In 1985, the second one was identified by scientists in France. It is closely related to HIV-1. It is called HIV-2. HIV-2 mainly occurs in Africa but HIV-1 occurs throughout the world(Drotman 163). There are three stages of the infection. The first stage is acute retroviral syndrome and asymptomatic period. This is the flulike or mononucleosislike illness that most people get within 6-12 weeks after becoming infected. It usually goes away without treatment. From this point on the person's blood tests positively for HIV. The second stage is symptomatic HIV infection. This is when the infected person's symptoms show up. It can last anywhere from a few months to many years. The third and final stage is AIDS. This is when the immune system is severally damaged and the opportunistic diseases set in. The progressive breakdown of the immune system leads to death, usually within a few years. HIV causes a severe "wasting syndrome." A general decline in the health and in some cases, death. The virus infects the brain and the nervous system. It may cause dementia, a condition of sensory, thinking, or memory disorder. Infection of the brain may cause movement or coordination problems(Drotman 164). HIV can be present in the body for two to twelve years without any outward sign of illness. It can be transmitted to another person even if no symptoms are present(Drotman 164). When HIV picks up speed, a variety of symptoms are possible. The symptoms include unexplained fever, fatigue, diarrhea, weight loss, enlarged lymph glands, loss of appetite, yeast infections of the mouth and vagina, night sweats lasting longer than several weeks, breathing difficulties, a dry cough, sore throat caused by swollen glands, chills, and shaking(Quackenbush 23). Pink or purple, flat or raised blotches or bumps occurring under the skin, inside the mouth, nose, eyelids or rectum are also symptoms. They resemble bruises, but don't disappear. They are usually harder than the skin around them. White spots or unusual blemishes in the mouth is another symptom(Quackenbush 24). There are two illnesses that commonly affect AIDS patients. One is a type of pneumonia called pneumocystis carinii. The other one is a type of cancer called kaposi's sarcoma, which attacks the skin(What are HIV/AIDS 1). Pneumocystis carinii is a yeast infection in the esophagus. It causes severe pain when swallowing which results in weight loss and dehydration. It is the leading cause of death among AIDS patients. Kaposi's sarcoma are tumors that look like

buy custom National Organization of Students Needing Help essay

buy custom National Organization of Students Needing Help essay The following plan outlines the various ways to follow in order to make National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) successful. This organization intends to utilize the student union to bring change to the various factors affecting the student fraternity. NOCASH aims at reaching majority of the college going students in America. This is aimed at unifying the force towards bringing an improved welfare for the students both in schools and within the nation. NOCASH aims at pushing for consideration of the American students when making policies concerning the American society. NOCASH as a group however, is to face several setbacks in the quest for the various goals. This will need making of various decisions aimed at overcoming the challenges (Binodananda 48). Overcoming obstacles The organization National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) anticipates various setbacks in their goals. These need to be checked and suitable plans made to ensure the goals are not only met but the goals are also met in a timely and accurate manner. Some of this setbacks and the recommended plan to overcome them include; a) Financial obstacles The organization NOCASH faces lack of adequate finances as a major challenge that threatens to ground the activities of the organization. These can however be overcome through a combination of measures which include; Carrying out of charity work mainly in government projects in return for funding in various activities. These will also go a long way into popularizing the organization within the country since many government projects are usually national wide. Some of these activities include assisting in environmental protection and preservation activities The organization NOCASH can also seek funding from donors who appreciate the role of student organizations within the schools, the student lives and the American nation. NOCASH should also seek to raise some cash from the registration fees of the members. This will help create a pool of finances for the running of the organization. The National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) can also utilize their numbers to raise cash for their organization. This is to happen through the creation of an advertising platform for various companies aiming to reach out to college students. b) Leadership obstacles NOCASH as an organization targeting to go national is likely to face leadership problems due to t its size and number of members in the organization nationally. This obstacle however can be overcome through delegating duties to various students in the various regions or states of the United States of America .These will alo go a long way into painting the group as a national organization hence having a greater Impact (Dunkel and Schuh 34). c) Membership problems The organization NOCASH also faces a major challenge of inadequate membership. This obstacle to NOCASHs success can be overcome through various member motivating strategies. These include; NOCASH should provide adequate forums for interaction between the students and the working fraternity. This will help address the issue of unemployment through creating links between the students and their potential employers (Binodananda 67). The National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) should also come up with a rewarding system who introduces a friend to the organization. This will help motivate existing members to recruit more individuals into the group. The National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) should also utilize various media in reaching out to the college students. The various media that can be utilized include; the social media, emails, articles in college magazines and the national papers. NOCASH will also have to utilize various popular and well wishing personalities to appeal to the college students. NOCASH should also look forward to sponsoring various college student activities such as camps, inter-college competitions and college parties. These events should have conditions such as: free entry for the members and additional benefits such as VIP treatment for active individuals. These will help attract all college going students to NOCASH. Such activities can also provide good avenues to sell merchandise hence raising some revenue for the organization. In future the National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) should look forward at giving cheap gifts to its members on crucial days and festivals such as the members birthdays (Dunkel and Schuh 13). Strategies The National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) has various major objectives. These include, mobilizing public opinion and influencing and persuading elected leaders. These objectives need to be met without straining the financial muscle of the National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH).The strategies aimed at achieving these goals include; Strategies towards mobilizing public opinion The strategies aimed at mobilizing public opinion are; championing for the national rights of college students; promoting morality among the students nationally; pushing for the protection of the environment and raising the red flag in cases of government oppression on the students and their parents. These will help to create an image of a caring organization to the public hence rallying massive public support.. This will help the National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) to be an organization to reckon with in the United States (Binodananda 32). Strategies towards influencing and persuading elected leaders The National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) intends to mobilize its members and all supportive parties (such as the parents to college students) during the general elections to vote for leaders who, embrace the rights of college students, aim at improving the lives of the common American citizen. This will come along way into ensuring the society minded leaders are put into office. These efforts of the National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) will send messages to the electorate on the power of the organization. The actions of the organization also aim at putting into power leaders who will be willing to work with NOCASH (Dunkel and Schuh 56). Other student organizations in America In America there are various student organizations that have been existent. These organizations experience varying levels of popularity among the American college students. Some are recognized nationally while others are only recognized within the boundaries of the specific colleges. Some of these organizations include;theStudentVeterans of America; the skills U.S.A and the student organization of Washington university. These organizations have utilized strategies such as using the national mass media to popularize their activities. This strategy can be utilized by the National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) to popularize their favorite leaders in future elections as well as popularize the activities of NOCASH. These organizations have also utilized strategies such as working together with community churches to help promote morality of the college students. The National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) can utilize this policy too. NOCASH can utilize this strategy not only to impart morals to its members and influence public support. The student organizations in America also utilize the strategy of producing clothing with information supporting their membership (Binodananda 45). The National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) should utilize this measure to increase its popularity as well as the popularity of its preferred candidate for any leadership position. Competitors The National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) has some competitors in catering for the needs of college students. A good example is the US Public Interest Research Group. The National Organization of Collegiate American Students Needing Help (NOCASH) can overcome their influence by working close with its members who are students. Buy custom National Organization of Students Needing Help essay

Geneticly Modified Organisms Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Geneticly Modified Organisms - Research Paper Example In many instances, some scientists consider it a miracle since it is instrumental in solving such problems (Hamilton, 2001). This has been successful through production of modified crops, food, drugs, vaccines and even livestock. Since the success story of genetically modified organism is appealing, many people are improving technology to have an optimum solution to these problems. The second factor that has been influential in production of this organism is the economic factor. The economy in many parts of the word has been dwindling due to lack of better ways of solving problems. As such, scientists have been engaged to help find better ways of solving such problems. They have come up with the technology that manipulates organisms to increase production (Povich, 2010). This has been successful as many scientists have successfully increased production. As a matter of fact, modification has been successful since it involves many sectors of the economy. When production in many economi c aspects is improved, the whole economy will record a significant growth. The third factor that has made it possible for research in technology is the political condition. Many parts of the world are struggling to find political solutions to a number of problems that affect their people. To solve the situation, the political bigwigs have to find solutions that are sustainable. Technology and modification is one of the factors that have helped solve the problems. Political and Legal Influences The politics of a country are dominated by few people who have power. The people in power have an obligation of making decisions that will enhance the lives of the masses. As such, they can make decisions depending on the underlying factors. However, some politicians make decisions depending on the underlying interest. Some politicians will make decisions depending on their links with some of the companies that control some vital aspects in the political environment. For instance, a better par t of the American population has vast information in concerns to Monsanto (Peters, 2012). This is a renowned company that has been influential in providing a weed killer that is used in lawns. The company has been influential in providing superb services in regard to weed killers and providing adorable lawns. However, what most people have not deciphered is that the company is also influential in providing vast food products. This is due to the political influence and affluence it has in the United States. It is stated that employees that used to work for the company new hold influential positions in the government. As such, they have a better chance of making decisions that could affect the company in the near future. Since they still have vested interests in the company, they are not likely to make decisions that will ground the company. In most cases, they are protective to the company and will make decisions that seem to favor the company. Monsanto is a company that has been mak ing dreadful chemicals that kill weeds. Apparently, this has been detrimental to the environment as most of these residues are environmental pollutants. Though the company has been producing chemicals that pollute the earth’s surface, the company is still given the leeway to engage in production of food products. This is partly due to the political influence the company has. In the recent past, the company has b

The U.S. Constitution- Bill of Rights, needed changes and amendments Research Proposal

The U.S. Constitution- Bill of Rights, needed changes and amendments to meet a changing World - Research Proposal Example All these acts have led the Bill of Rights being disregarded in the rush to make it quicker to investigate people after which they are put in jail and tortured if necessary. According to Giraldi, P (2008), a recent executive has authorized the President to get the property of anyone found or suspected of threatening the stabilization efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan. To him, the order does not give permission for the concerned party to challenge the information which seizure is based on. According to Giraldi, P (2008) further, the United States will have to deal with home grown terrorists soon and that, for the country to be on the safe side, something has to be done in anticipation so as to neutralize the problem. The bill of rights should deals firmly with this issue by creating of a commission which will be charged with holding hearings, conducting investigations and to determine whether various groups which exist in the country can be called terrorists. To him, this commission should be allowed to propose a new dispensation that will enable the government to take punitive action as it deems fit against the said groups as well as the individuals who are associated with such groups. Unlike in the past, this commission should go around the country holding hearings meant to find the terrorists and root them out completely. This commission will empower its members to prepare for hearings to obtain testimonies while administering oaths to potential witnesses. This translates to more hearings running at the same in various parts of the country. However, homegrown terrorism prevention Act can easily be abused against any group which pressures the political system and be dumped as terrorists. The September 9/11 unleashed American lack of trust towards foreigners. The country has spent billions of dollars while strengthening law enforcement as well as intelligence

Financial management Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Financial management - Term Paper Example By international standards, this indeed was a phenomenal growth. The balance sheets of commercial banks exhibited rapid increase during the entire eighties decade but started showing signs of slowing down in the first half of nineties as interest differences tended to taper off and banks started depending more and more on fees as their primary source of income. There was another tell tale sign of continuous increase in the size of the international financial superstructure and that was a marked increase in the volume of securities outstanding (mainly in the form of bonds and money market papers) in the total quantum of financial claims while there was an almost parallel decline in deposits and loans. However, what all analysts and financial experts preferred at that moment to turn a blind eye to was the increased specter of massive amounts of bad debts. Things were further complicated by the fact that while household sector balance sheets started exhibiting an increase in both assets and liabilities, there was a marked decline in deposits within gross household assets and an almost comparable increase in net financial wealth in the form of securities. (Blommestein 1996) This was possibly a direct offshoot of the remarkable innovativeness that was witnessed in the financial markets during this decade when one was overwhelmed by the sudden spurt in derivatives markets and advent of commercial papers in a very big way. Practically all forms of regulations and restrictions that were considered vital for maintaining stability in international financial markets were given a go by as almost all OECD countries abolished exchange controls. The banking sector also got rid of almost all forms interest rate controls and controls over credit expansion. The capitals markets also witnessed removal of controls over fees and commissions. In some countries, the existing

Whole Exome Sequencing in Inherited Endocrine Disorders

Whole Exome Sequencing in Inherited Endocrine Disorders Background Molecular diagnosis is important in the management of various paediatric endocrine disorders including disorders of growth, metabolism, bone, hypoglycaemia and sexual development. Traditional PCR-based Sanger sequencing is the mainstay format for molecular testing in paediatric cases. However, the large number of gene defects associated with the various endocrine disorders renders gene-by-gene testing increasingly expensive and unattractive. The large number of potentially relevant genes makes it challenging for hospital molecular diagnostic laboratories to offer gene-based testing of all candidates. Given the high costs associated with single-gene tests, the selection of candidates for single-gene sequencing tends to be sequential rather than inclusive and parallel. In practice, different genes may be outsourced to different clinical or in some cases academic research laboratories which adds to the complexity. Using new high-throughput sequencing technologies, whole genomes, whole e xomes or candidate-gene panels (targeted gene sequencing) can now be cost-effectively sequenced for endocrine patients. In the near future, protocols involving next-generation sequencing would probably be considered as an appropriate component of routine clinical diagnosis for relevant patients. Defects of pituitary hormones lead to abnormalities in growth (e.g., short stature), sexual development, fertility, stress response and other metabolic processes. A number of genes coding for transcription factors have been identified, mutations in which cause medical disorders in humans associated with pituitary deficiencies [1-2]. Some of these factors, such as PROP1, TPIT, POU1F1, LHX3 and LHX4, play roles in the normal embryological development of the anterior pituitary. Mutations in these genes can lead to multiple pituitary hormone deficiencies and/or syndromic hypopituitarism [3]. The transcription factors such as HESX1, OTX2, SHH, SOX2 and SOX3 are involved in midline development. Mutations in these can cause septo-optic dysplasia or holoprosencephaly, both of which may include pituitary hormone deficiencies [4]. Other genes encode the precursors to pituitary hormones (growth hormone, ACTH [through processing of POMC], gonadotropic-luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, and thyroid-stimulating hormone). Mutations in these genes lead to phenotypes characteristic of individual hormone deficiency. The pituitary secretory cells themselves respond to signals originating in the hypothalamus, some of which are also peptide hormones with specific receptors expressed on the responding cells; mutations in these genes or their cognate receptors can also cause combined or specific pituitary deficiencies [1]. However, many cases of congenital hypopituitarism still remain unexplained and most are presumably due to other causes, either mutations in other deve lopmental genes or epigenetic influences during embryogenesis. Short stature is a common presentation to the paediatric endocrinology clinics. However, no cause is identified in a large proportion of patients who are classified as having idiopathic short stature [5, 6, 7]. It is estimated that the underlying cause for short stature remains unknown in approximately 80% of patients [8]. In a large-scale pooled Next-Generation Sequencing study to identify genetic causes of short stature, 4928 genetic variants in 1077 genes were present in patients but not in control subjects [9]. Large-scale sequencing efforts have the potential to rapidly identify genetic aetiologies of short stature. In another study, seeking to identify known and genetic causes of short stature by conducting whole exome sequencing of the patients with severe short stature and their family members, genetic cause of short stature was found in 5 out of the 14 recruited patients [10]. Rare genetic defects in the GH/IGF-1 axis have been found to cause short stature. A higher frequenc y of rare CNVs (common number variants) has been reported in patients with short stature [8, 11]. A recent study to define genetic characterisation of a cohort of children clinically labelled as Growth Hormone or IGF1 insensitive found that whole exome sequencing contributed to the diagnosis of children with suspected growth hormone and IGF1 insensitivity, particularly in the Growth hormone insensitive subjects with low serum IGF1 SDS and height SDS [12]. It may be now possible to identify likely genetic causes of short stature by implementing genomic investigative techniques like whole exome sequencing in many of these children who have unknown reasons for their poor linear growth. Congenital Hyperinsulinism (CHI) is the most common cause of persistent and recurrent hypoglycaemia in infancy [13]. It is the result of unregulated insulin secretion from the pancreatic ÃŽ ²-cells leading to severe hypoglycaemia [13, 14]. This condition has been reported in nearly all major ethnic groups and affects at least 1/50,000 children of European descent [14]. CHI is caused by genetic defects in key genes regulating insulin secretion. The genetic basis of CHI involves mutations in nine different genes (ABCC8, KCNJ11, GLUD1, GCK, HADH, SLC16A1, HNF4A, HNF1A and UCP2), which regulate insulin secretion from the pancreatic ÃŽ ²-cells [14,15]. The most common molecular cause of CHI is the dysfunction of the pancreatic KATP channel encoded by the sulfonylurea receptor gene (ABCC8) and the inward rectifying potassium channel gene (KCNJ11) [14,15]. CHI can also be secondary to risk factors like birth asphyxia, intra-uterine growth retardation, Rh isoimmunisation and maternal diabetes mellitus or associated with various developmental syndromes [16]. Histologically, CHI can be associated either with diffuse insulin secretion or with focal adenomatous hyperplasia. Positron emission tomography scan using Fluorine-18 L-3, 4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (18-fluoro DOPA-TC-PET-scan) has been used to distinguish focal from diffuse forms. Medical treatments of CHI include diazoxide (KATP channel activator), somatostatin analogue (octreotide) injections, and appropriate diet. The surgical treatment with subtotal pancreatectomy is required in diffuse CHI when medical treatment and dietary therapies are ineffective, whereas focal CHI can be cured with resection of the focal area of adenomatous hyperplasia [14, 15, 16]. Recently, mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor sirolimus has been used in treatment of persistent severe CHI not amena ble to medical therapies [18]. CHI has been described as an associated finding in various syndromes like Beckwith-Wiedemann, Kabuki, Trisomy 13, Mosaic Turner, Sotos, Usher, Timothy, Costello, Central Hypoventilation syndrome and Leprechaunism (Insulin Resistance Syndrome) [17]. However, in many patients, with clinically defined syndromic features and with hypoglycaemia, no identifiable genetic cause contributing to hyperinsulinism is found. In a large series of 300 patients, genetic diagnosis was made only in 45.3% of the patients and mutations in ABCC8 were the commonest identifiable cause [19]. The vast majority of patients with Diazoxide-responsive CHI (77.6%) had no identifiable mutations, suggesting other genetic mechanisms [19]. Molecular diagnosis can be very important for clinicians to manage the patients more effectively and to counsel parents on the prognosis and disease recurrence. Whole Exome sequencing can be advantageous in these groups of patients to identify the mol ecular defects and to assess the coding variants that may be pathogenic in these patients [20]. Aims To identify novel genetic causes of rare inherited endocrine disorders in children with a focus on congenital hyperinsulinism, short stature of unknown etiology and IGF1 abnormalities by using whole exome sequencing. Experimental Design and Methods Patient Recruitment Patients with a diagnosis of CHI referred to Alder Hey Children’s Hospital, which is a national referral centre for CHI, will be recruited into the study. A written informed parental consent will be obtained. These patients will be biochemically confirmed as CHI using the following criteria: Blood glucose concentration of less than 3.0 mmol/l with detectable insulin and/or C-peptide Glucose requirement > 8mg/kg/min Low levels of ketones and fatty acids during the episode of hypoglycaemia Clinical and biochemical data will be collated from referral letter or by case note review. Patients with a secondary cause of CHI such as perinatal asphyxia, intra-uterine growth restriction, Rhesus isoimmunisation, infants of diabetic mothers and infants with Beckwith Wiedemann syndrome will be excluded from the study. Patients are considered to be unresponsive to medical treatment if recurrent hypoglycaemia episodes ( Patients attending the Paediatric Endocrinology clinic at Alder Hey Children’s Hospital with severe short stature (>3 SDS below mean) for age and sex in whom the standard clinical work up has not revealed a diagnosis for their short stature will be recruited into the study. Patients referred or evaluated for growth hormone insensitivity (growth failure, low serum IGF1 and normal/elevated serum GH) or IGF1 insensitivity (pre- and postnatal growth failure associated with relatively high IGF1 levels) will also be recruited into the study. A written parental informed consent will be obtained prior to the recruitment. Whole Exome Sequencing (WES) WES will be performed at the Centre for Genomic Research (CGR) based at the University of Liverpool. The test will be ordered after explaining the risks and benefits of testing to the patient and obtaining written informed consent. Each patient (and their parents or guardians) will be advised of the potential disclosure of conditions unrelated to the indication for testing that might warrant treatment or additional medical surveillance for the patient and possibly other family members. Peripheral-blood samples will be obtained to isolate DNA from the patient and both parents where possible. High-throughput sequencing will be performed using Illumina HiSeq2500. The genomic DNA samples from probands will be fragmented, ligated to Illumina multiplexing and amplified by means of a polymerase-chain-reaction assay with the use of primers with sequencing barcodes. Variants that were deemed clinically significant will be confirmed by means of Sanger sequencing. Parental samples, if available, will also be analysed by means of Sanger sequencing. Further functional analysis will be undertaken to establish the pathogenicity of the identified variant by utilising the in-house lab facilities at Institute of Child Health. Relevance of the proposed project Despite the advances in understanding the molecular pathogenesis, specific genetic determinants are not known in nearly 50% of patients with CHI and 80% of children with short stature. Whole exome sequencing in this group of patients will help to understand and identify the potential causative mutations in genes implicated in insulin regulation and growth. This will help the clinicians to provide optimal treatment and to counsel patients on disease progression and recurrence risk. Identification of novel genetic aetiology has the potential to identify novel therapeutic strategies for these patients. The applicant will spend time initially at Alder Hey Children’s Hospital to recruit patients and then at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital to learn the techniques of WES, bioinformatics and functional analysis. The applicant will then return to Alder Hey Children’s Hospital Institute of Child Health, University of Liverpool to complete the study and strengthen the local research expertise relevant to next generation sequencing.

Galileos Work :: essays research papers

Galileo Galilei was born on February 15, 1564 in Pisa, Italy. In 1570 his family relocated to Florence. Galileo pioneered "experimental scientific method" and was the first to use a refracting telescope to make important astronomical discoveries. In 1581, Galileo studied at the University of Pisa. There he became interested in the workings of science and concluded that the period (the time in which a pendulum swings back and forth) does not depend on the arc of the swing (the isochronisms). In 1609 Galileo learned of the invention of the telescope in Holland. From the barest description he constructed a vastly superior model. Galileo made a series of profound discoveries using his new telescope, including that the moon has craters, valleys, and mountains much like the Earth’s terrain. He also was able to see four small lights orbiting around the planet Jupiter. He was then able to conclude that it too was moons. Galileo was also able to discover that the planet Venus had phases much like our Moon. As a professor of astronomy at University of Pisa, Galileo was required to teach the accepted theory of his time that the sun and all the planets revolved around the Earth. Later at University of Padua he was exposed to a new theory, proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus, that the Earth and all the other planets revolved around the sun. Galileo's observations with his new telescope convinced him of the truth of Copernicus's sun-centered or heliocentric theory. In 1610, Galileo published a book, The Starry Messenger, describing his findings that supported the Copernican theory. Galileo's support for the heliocentric theory got him into trouble with the Roman Catholic Church. He was forced to abandon his astronomical pursuits. But, Galileo retaliated by publishing a book, Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. This book cause more arguments with the church due to it were in Italian which was a direct conflict with the church. In 1633 the Inquisition convicted him of heresy and forced him to recant (publicly withdraw) his support of Copernicus. They sentenced him to life imprisonment, but because of his advanced age allowed him serve his term under house arrest at his villa outside of Florence, Italy. It was not until 1992 that the church publicly forgave Galileo. But due to the timeframe, the damage had already been done.